When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth century, Peru was the homeland of the highland Inca Empire, the largest and most advanced state in pre-Columbian America. After the conquest of the Incas, the Spanish Empire established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821, but achieved independence only after the Battle of Ayacucho three years later. Modern historiography of Peru divides its history into three main periods:

·A Prehispanic period, which lasts from the first civilizations of the region to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.

·A Viceregal or Colonial period, which lasts from the aforementioned conquest to the Peruvian declaration of independence.

·A Republican period, which lasts from the war of independence to the current day.

Huascarán

The highest mountain in Peru has two towering peaks. The highest, Huascarán Sur (the southernmost peak), rises up to 22,132 feet (6,746 m). This is the highest point in Peru and one of the highest in the southern hemisphere (705 feet below Aconcagua). The peak of its second summit, Huascarán Norte, reaches 6,655 m, which is still higher than Peru’s second highest mountain. Both are located in Huascarán National Park in the Cordillera Blanca mountain range, Yungay province, Ancash. The first successful ascent of Huascarán Sur was by the German-Austrian expedition of Bernard, Borchers, Hein, Hörlin and Schneider in 1932. Modern climbers normally start the ascent through Huaraz, which is the climbing and trekking hub (and capital) of the Ancash department. From there, they head to the village of Musho to the west of Huascarán before climbing the mountain.

Nevado Yerupajá

Nevado Yerupajá is also in the Ancash department, but forms part of the Cordillera Huayhuash range rather than the Cordillera Blanca. Its summit rises to 21,709 feet (6,617 m), making it the second highest mountain in Peru. The first successful ascent of Yerupajá was in 1950, when Jim Maxwell and Dave Harrah conquered this notoriously difficult mountain. Even today, with modern equipment, successful ascents are rare. Yerupajá’s ominous nickname — El Carnicero (“The Butcher”) – refers to the mountain’s knife-edge summit ridge with its serrated appearance. Most climbers approach Yerupajá first through Huaraz and then via the small town of Chiquián.

Another towering peak in the Cordillera Blanca, Huandoy isn’t all that far from Huascarán. It has four peaks, each one rising more than 19,685 feet (6,000 m). Huandoy’s tallest peak reaches 20,981 feet (6,395 m), making it the second highest mountain in the Cordillera Blanca (well, Huantsan, below, might have something to say about that: the two are often listed at exactly the same height).

Huantsan is one of the hardest climbs in Peru, its arrowhead peak piercing the sky to a height of 20,981 feet (6,395 m) above sea level. Getting to the base of Huantsan is fairly easy, as it’s not too far east of Huaraz. But climbing Huantsan is a whole different prospect. Only experienced mountaineers need apply.

Ausangate is the highest mountain in the Cusco Region of Peru, and the second highest in southern Peru. Its peak rises to 20,945 feet (6,384 m) in the Cordillera Vilcanota range, about 60 miles from the city of Cusco. The Incas revered Ausangate as one of the most important apus in Inca mythology. The mountain is still venerated, and is central to the annual Señor de Qoyllur Ritti festival. Ausangate is popular among trekkers and climbers, most of whom arrive in Cusco before heading to the small villages of Tinqui and Chilca.

popular river

Stretching 1,100 miles (1,771 km.), the Ucayali River is the longest river in Peru. It begins in the Ucayali Region, travels northward to the port city of Pucallpa where many Amazon river cruises embark, and then follows a north-northeasterly course through the jungles of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve to ultimately connect with the Amazon River in the port town of Nauta.

Stretching 1,100 miles (1,771 km.), the Ucayali River is the longest river in Peru. It begins in the Ucayali Region, travels northward to the port city of Pucallpa where many Amazon river cruises embark, and then follows a north-northeasterly course through the jungles of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve to ultimately connect with the Amazon River in the port town of Nauta.

River

The Marañón River journeys 879 miles (1,414 km.) through the central highlands of Peru, meeting up with smaller tributaries as it makes its way to the Amazon River and its confluence with the Ucayali River in Nauta. This river has two claims to fame, the first being that it’s widely considered to be the main stem source of the Amazon River and the second being its jungle gorges, one of which is often compared to the Grand Canyon in the U.S.

This four country-traversing river begins in southwestern Colombia, continues along the Colombia-Ecuador border, and then follows the Peru-Colombia border to Brazil via Tarapacá for a grand total of 857 miles (1,380 km.). The river is mainly a transport route for cargo headed for the Amazon River in Brazil.

River

The people of Peru are a mix of many different cultures, including Indians, Spaniards and other Europeans, descendants of African slaves, and Asians. Until recently, most people lived in the countryside. But now, more than 70 percent live in cities. Most Peruvians follow the Catholic religion introduced by the Spanish.

PEOPLE AND CULTURE

Peru is a country in South America that's home to a section of Amazon rainforest and Machu Picchu, an ancient Incan city high in the Andes mountains. The region around Machu Picchu, including the Sacred Valley, Inca Trail and colonial city of Cusco, is rich in archaeological sites. On Peru’s arid Pacific coast is Lima, the capital, with a preserved colonial center and important collections of pre-Columbian art.

POPULATION

ETHNIC GROUPS

The Amerindians did not have as much natural immunity to the disease as did the Europeans.[20] For this reason, several Amerindian populations were decimated. Furthermore, the disease killed Inca ruler Wayna Capac, triggering a civil war in the Inca empire that preceded the conquest efforts the Spaniards. Thus, the conquest was facilitated by the weakness of the Inca empire which was recovering from both a civil war and epidemics of unknown diseases.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by the amalgamation of different cultures and ethnicities over thousands of years. Amerindians inhabited the land for over ten millennia before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century; their cultures and influence represent the foundation of today's Peru.

As a result of European contact and conquest, the population of the area now known as Peru decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600000 in 1620.[19] This happened mostly because of the unintended spread of germs and infectious diseases. In fact, the spread of smallpox greatly weakened the Inca empire, even before the Spanish arrival.

It's the multiple layers of great civilizations that make Peru so fascinating. Cobblestone streets preserve the era of the Conquistadors, the ruins of the lost city of Machu Pichu remind travelers of the once mighty Inca Empire, and the mysterious Nazca lines elude all explanation. On top of this the Peruvian Andes are arguably the most spectacular mountains on the continent and home to millions of highland Indians who still speak the ancient language of Quechua and maintain a traditional way of life. Then to the East and thousands of feet below, the lush Amazon Basin covers half of Peru and is one of the world's top 10 biodiversity hotspots - these are areas of super high species diversity that are under threat of being extinguished.

Lying along the Pacific Coast, Peru shares borders with Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. It has three major regions: a narrow coastal belt, the wide Andean mountains and the Amazon Basin. The coastal strip is predominantly desert, but contains Peru's major cities and its best highway, the Carratera Panamericana. The Andes comprise two principal ranges - Cordillera Occidental and Oriental - and includes Huascarán (6768m/22,199ft), Peru's highest mountain. To the east is the Amazon Basin, a region of tropical lowlands, which is drained by the Maranon and Ucayali rivers. Cusco: The once great Inca Capital of Cusco still teems with Andean pride and has become a travelers' mecca of sorts. Narrow streets lined by Inca walls stretch out from the main plaza and indigenous farmers and craftsmen rush by carrying their wares to market. Traditional and international foods are found everywhere and shopkeepers always offer a welcoming smile.

LANGUAGE

RELIGION

Spanish is the main language throughout Peru, although most highland Indians are bilingual, with Quechua being their preferred language and Spanish their second tongue. When bargaining in rural markets, a Quechua word or two will not only endear you to the vendors, but usually get you an extra orange or more juice! Several small lowland groups speak their own languages. English is understood in the best hotels and in airline offices and travel agencies, but it's of little use elsewhere.

Christianity is the largest religion in Peru, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Religion in Peru is traditionally related to religious syncretism originating from Catholicism with the ancient Inca religion after the Spanish Conquest. However, Protestant churches of various denominations have developed considerably in the popular sectors over the past 30 years. There has been a slow but consistent advance of irreligion especially among young people in urban areas. Religions such as Judaism and Buddhism, and more recently Hinduism and Islam, are present due to immigration.

Settle

PATTERN

Pre-Columbian eras, the highland population was ensconced on ridges, hillsides, and other locations that did not interfere with farming priorities. Large ceremonial buildings, temples, or administrative centers, were, however, located in central locations, often apart from the residences of average persons. By the time of conquest, the Incas had rearranged settlements to suit their own vision of administrative needs in conquered areas. Thus, Inca planners and architects constructed special towns and cities, such as Huánuco Viejo, to handle their needs.

Pre-Columbian eras, the highland population was ensconced on ridges, hillsides, and other locations that did not interfere with farming priorities. Large ceremonial buildings, temples, or administrative centers, were, however, located in central locations, often apart from the residences of average persons. By the time of conquest, the Incas had rearranged settlements to suit their own vision of administrative needs in conquered areas. Thus, Inca planners and architects constructed special towns and cities, such as Huánuco Viejo, to handle their needs.

The striking similarities among settlements in terms of design and architecture are no accident. Virtually all settlements thus exhibit the grid pattern or model of rectangular blocks arranged around a town square, universally known as the arms plaza (plaza de armas). This design reflects the military dimension of the conquest culture, the central place in an encampment being where armaments were kept when not deployed. By direct analogy, it also demonstrates and symbolizes central authority and power. Status, conferred by birth, race, and occupation, was confirmed by a central urban residence. In modern practice, status has continued to be reflected in a hierarchy of urban residence descending from Lima to the departmental, provincial, and district capitals. No one of importance or power is rural.

. Peru has signed a number of free trade agreements with its main trade partners. China became the nation's largest trading partner following the China–Peru Free Trade Agreement signed on 28 April 2009.Additional free trade agreements have been signed with the United States in 2006, Japan in 2011 and the European Union in 2012. Trade and industry are centralized in Lima while agricultural exports have led to regional development within the nation.

. Peru has signed a number of free trade agreements with its main trade partners. China became the nation's largest trading partner following the China–Peru Free Trade Agreement signed on 28 April 2009.Additional free trade agreements have been signed with the United States in 2006, Japan in 2011 and the European Union in 2012. Trade and industry are centralized in Lima while agricultural exports have led to regional development within the nation.

Following the independence of Peru from the Spanish Empire, the economic elite focused their power on the coastal regions while the rural provinces were governed by existing serfdom practices by hacienda landowners.This model essentially continued until 1968 when General Juan Velasco Alvarado took power, leading a dictatorship that increased social spending and removing the power of landowners, which resulted with a power vacuum in the 1970s that saw the rise of communist guerilla group Shining Path.Beginning in the 1980s, Peru faced economic difficulties as a result of the early 1980s recession and the internal conflict in Peru during its Lost Decade. The government of Alan García enacted price controls that resulted in hyperinflation.In response, the armed forces of Peru drafted Plan Verde, an operation to create a neoliberal, open market economy. This was reportedly executed by the government of Alberto Fujimori, beside prescriptions from economist Hernando de Soto, during a period known as "Fujishock".During this shock, price controls were discontinued, the privatization of state-run organizations occurred and the promotion of foreign investments happened through the removal of regulations. The economic measures of the Fujimori administration made the country macro-economically stable.

Peruvian economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments, though in recent decades the economy has begun to diversify. Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, manufactures, machinery, services and fish meal. The country's major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, the European Union and Chile. Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive. Services account for 59.9% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by industry (32.7%) and agriculture (7.6%). Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, as well as rising investment and consumption.

Peru’s mining industry is essential to the country’s economic development. It accounts for nearly 10% of GDP, while mineral export revenues reached $27.2 billion in 2021, representing 60% of the country’s total exports. Peru is the world’s second-largest producer of copper, silver, and zinc and Latin America’s largest producer of gold. Peru is among the primary producers of mineral commodities in the world. Abundant mineral resources such as copper, gold, silver, and lithium are found mainly in the mountains.

Substantial additional investment has flowed into the sector over the past 20 years, and international investors are vital to the growth and success of the country’s exploration and mining sector. However, Peru fell for the third consecutive year in the index of most attractive countries and regions for investments in mining, according to the latest Annual Survey of Mining Companies 2021 prepared by the Fraser Institute – largely attributed to the political situation in the country.Nevertheless, according to the Ministry of Enery and Mines (MINEM), in 2021, Peru’s investment in the mining sector exceeded $5.2 billion, surpassing the projected goal. Four investment areas reported positive growth: mining equipment (+65%), exploration (+76%), infrastructure (+43%) and development/preparation (+52%).

Peru has approximately 200 operating mines and several large projects ready for development. In March 2022, direct employment in the mining sector in Peru came to over 237,850 workers, exceeding 2021 by 4.5%. According to the 2021 Portfolio of Mining Construction Projects from the Ministry of Energy and Mines, Peru has 43 main projects in different stages of development targeting a variety of metals and minerals, representing a total investment of more than $53 billion. Copper projects represent 69% ($36.5 billion), gold 15%, and iron ore 11 %.